DNA non genomico • endosimbiosi • Mitocondri (metabolismo aerobico) e cloroplasti (fotosintesi) pare abbiano avuto origine da organismi procariotici che si stabilirono nelle cellule eucariotiche piu’ di un miliardo di anni fa. Dna non genomico: eredita’ non mendeliana Cloroplasti: eredita’ non mendeliana sia della cellula che dell’organismo. eteroplasmia In molte piante, ma non in tutte, i cloroplasti sono portati solo dal gamete femminile quindi l’eredita’ e’ materna. Correns DNA mitocondriale Giallo: mtDNA Rosso: nuclear DNA Generali sul DNA mitocondriale (Snustad cap 19) •Scoperto negli anni 60 (EM, poi analisi fisiche e biochimiche) •Dimensioni variabili nei diversi organismi: da 2500 kb a 16-17kb •Ogni mitocondrio ha piu’ copie (ovocita di vertebrato 10e8!), cellule somatiche circa 1000 •Generalmente circolare tranne alcune specie (lineare in Chlamidomonas reinharditii e nel ciliato Paramecium aurelia) •Le molecole circolari hanno varia organizzazione: -vertebrati (uomo) 37 geni in 16-17kb. -in alcune piante (DNA piu’ grande)geni dispersi e introni •Il mitocondrio ha sua macchina per esprimere mt genes mtDNA negli invertebrati mtDNA lievito: Circolare 78 kb Almeno 33 geni per rRNA 23-25 geni per tRNA 1 gene per proteina ribosomale 7 geni per proteine della fosforilazione ossidativa geni con introni sequenze intrageniche mtDNA negli invertebrati mtDNA piante vascolari: mais 570 kb melone 300 kb molte sequenze non codificanti, introni, duplicazioni Ricombinazione intramolecolare del mtDNA nel cavolo cinese mtDNA piante: peculiarita’ • Editing dei trascritti: C -> U (anche nei mt dei tripanosomi) • Trans-splicing (e.g. NADH reduttasi) Human mtDNA 16.559 bp Lettura dei due filamenti (H ed L) Trascritto policistronico 37 geni, no introni: -2 per rRNA -22 per tRNA -13 per proteine della fosforilazione ossidativa Simile nei topi nei bovini e nelle rane Human mtDNA Differenza nella lettura del codice: AGA: terminazione AGG: terminazione UGA: triptofano (invece di terminazione) AUA: metionina di inizio Evoluzione separata: i mitocondri sarebbero organismi viventi liberi incorporati nelle cells euc. piu’ di un miliardo di anni fa MITOCONDRIAL DNA AND HUMAN DISEASE •Alcune malattie sono legate al mtDNA: -neuropatia ottica ereditaria (LHON-cecita’ negli adulti). Mutazione di uno qualsiasi dei geni mitocondirali. Eredita’ materna. -sindrome midollo-pancreas di Pearson (perdita delle cells del midollo osseo durante l’infanzia). Perdita di una grossa porzione di mtDNA. Acquisita.Eteroplasmia mitocondriale •1/3500 people have or at risk of mt disease +associated diseases • NB: some mt disease can arise also from nuclear mutations •First described 1988 To understand mt-disease one has to think of mt-metabolism NADH FADH Complessi coinvolti nella fosforilazione ossidativa che porta alla produzione di ATP An mt-related disease can be distinguished from a nuclear diseasedifferences of inheritance Other pecularities of mt-DNAgenetics and related diseases •Concept of threshold in mt disease: heteroplasmy and (apparent) homoplasmy •High mutation rate •Studies challenge maternal inheritance, but very rare (interspecies data, muscle mtDNA) •Nuclear-mt interactions can change the phenotype (eg LHON from homoplasmic mother in 10% of females) •4% phenotype inheritance from an affected mother mt-disease inheritance: bottleneck in heteroplasmic case Given the central role of mithocondria many different mtdiseases How to understand whether a disease is linked to mt-DNA? mtDNA sequencing even if not conclusive unless for well known syndromes mt-related clinical syndromes Functional or structural genes can be implicated in mtsyndrome Models for studying mt-diseases: cybrid cells, transgenics cell line Allotopic expression of mt genes mt depleted Mut mtDNA in zygotes:heteroplasmy Patient mt reintegrated (selection) cybrid Mut mtDNA in zygotes:heteroplasmy Differenze nei diversi animali e tessuti Cybrid cytoplast in the zygote Nature Genetics 2000 Inoue et al Cox expression in mt-mutant mice a,b soleus muscle c,d cardiac muscle e mice anemya f normal and mutated kidney a-c normal b-d-e mutant mtDNA a renal failure Nature Genetics 2000 Inoue et al For animal models and avoid human mut-mt-DNA transmission: selection and “use” od wt mtDNA Involvment of mtDNA in common (disease) phenotype/ predisposition: diabetes, parkinson, alzheimer, IQ (?) cerebellum Skeletal muscle Colonic crypt Caridac tissue Extraocular muscle ageing and mt-defect: heteroplasmy of Cox Blue: cox-deficient Nature 2001 Curiosity Exercise increases satellite cell number which contain a low or negligible amount of mutated mtDNA… Correlation between mt mutations and cancer: cause or consequence? Human genome/animal cytoplasm To produce chimeric embryos for stem cell production Importanza dei mitocondri? TECNOLOGIA & SCIENZA Invia Stampa Permessa la creazione degli "embrioni-chimera" a scopo di ricerca Produrranno cellule staminali da usare per cercare cure a molte malattie Gran Bretagna, via libera a embrioni ibridi Al loro interno Dna umano e animale Il Vaticano: "Un atto mostruoso contro la dignità umana” Repubblica.it settembre 2007 MT DNA AND HUMAN EVOLUTION • evolve piu’ velocemente del DNA nucleare: 0.017 x10e-6 mut/site/year (eukaryotes is in generally 10-4 to 10-6/gene/generation) •trasmesso solo per via materna (not in Drosophila and mice): dogma in humans? mtDNA of paternal origin is destroyed in oocytes by ubuquitination •abbondanza del campione (1000 copie, extranuclear). Doubt: which is the population to be considered? Problem: heteroplasmy? •no ricombinazione Doubts? Recombination possible. Mithocondria have functional recombinase. But no mix of genomes (male/female) -> not so important Studi pionieristici : anni ‘80 Allan Wilson, Rebecca Cann, Mark Stokening What is studied •RFLP •Sequence of fragments •Sequence of hyper-variable regions •Sequence of whole mt DNA Population or lineage (haplotype) studies What have we learned •Most important finding sull’ uomo moderno: african origin, 120,000-150,000 anni fa •No Neanderthal contribution 1997 •migrations No Neanderthal contribution 1997 Differenza in 28/379 nucleotidi sequenziati Uomo moderno e neanderthal cominciarono a evolversi separatamente a partire da 550.000-690.000 anni fa. I neanderthal poi si sono estinti Median joining network based on mtDNA hyper-v. region1 sequencing of 6 eurasian populations Multidimensional scaling plot based on genetic distances of 6 eurasian populations human populations: migrations Oldest groups Open problems in mtDNA-based evolution studies •Only maternal origin •Single locus •Statistics •Uncorrect databases •Nuclear inserts in mtDNA (numts) •Unidentified selective pressure Need to be complemented ideally with data on Y and on autosomes Other use of mtDNA -Forensic applications of mtDNA: some problems are common to evolutionary studies, but importance of sample availability - Personalized genetic history: individual genealogies companies An ethical question Nature 439, 126-127 (12 January 2006 DNA tests put death penalty under fire Emma Marris, Washington DC Campaigners hope re-examination of evidence will undermine capital punishment. US campaigners against capital punishment are hoping that modern DNA tests in old cases will undermine public confidence in the death penalty. In the next few weeks, genetic testing of an old sample could show that Roger Keith Coleman — executed in 1992 for rape and murder — was not guilty. The tests are being conducted at Canada's Centre of Forensic Sciences in Toronto, and were requested by the state of Virginia's governor, Mark Warner. If Coleman is exonerated, it will be the first time that genetic evidence is used to prove that the US death penalty has killed an innocent person. Monday, Apr. 19, 1999 Roots Mania By Margot Hornblower America’s latest obsession…. Where to go to get your genetic history Tree: evolutionary relationships among principal human population groups Not just a mania… •Sociopolitical interests •forensic •Medical purposes….