Articolo Lavoro Lento

Praising of the 'Slow' Work in the Context of Work-Based Learning
Vidmantas Tūtlys1, Giuseppe Tacconi2
1
Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania; 2University of Verona, Italy
FIRST DRAFT – PLEASE DO NOT QUOTE
Introduction
Work-based learning is increasingly prioritised in the different VET policy agendas and
educational practices targeted to cope with the structural unemployment and skills mismatch.
Policy makers, training providers and involved stakeholders of labour market pay a lot of attention
to the different isues of organisation of work and learning activities and their smooth integration
for attainment of the skills and competences relevant to the real work processes (European
Commission, 2017). However, the fit of the work process for the learning purposes is still rather
under-rated or considered through the lense of economic and organisational interests and
ergonomic requirements. One of the fundamental characteristics of the work process that is highly
important for the work-based learning is the duration or the pace of execution of work, generally
considered as a key predisposition of work productivity. Productive work is predominantly
understood and treated as a fast work oriented the maximisation of output (Bruni, 2014).
This paper aims to analyse the importance and value of the 'slow' work by disclosing the potential
of 'slow' work in enabling holistic learning in the work process and acquisition of the
corresponding competences and skills.
It starts from the discussion of the concept of 'slow' work by outlining the features of the 'slow'
work that favour learning. Then there is analysed philosophical and cultural background of slow
work by stressing importance of the national and sectoral contexts of 'slow' work. Finally, there
are outlined and discussed methodological and societal challenges for the 'slow' work, such as
globalisation of the labour market, international competition, technological development (Industry
4.0), restricted access of employment and work for youth.
The phenomenon of slow work: key features and conceptual backgrounds
The phenomenon of “slow” work can be analysed from the different research perspectives.
Referring to Barbier and Durand (2017) work can be researched from the cultural, cognitive,
experiential and relational perspective. Looking from the cultural perspective, work is regarded
as cultural phenomenon which distinguishes, shapes, sustains and changes different values behind
it creating the variety of such fundamental values and their legacy (Barbier, Durand, 2017). In this
regard, the speed and intensiveness of work execution is also a cultural factor which depends on
the established cultural norms and values related to work execution and performance. Cognitive
perspective on work refers to the practical cognition as acquisition and usage of knowledge and
skills in the context of activity. Such practical cognition is limited by the environment (context)
in which it is acquired (Barbier, Durand, 2017). Acquisition and sharing of knowledge in the
execution of work is of social origin, because it implies sharing of knowledge (Barbier, Durand,
2017). From this perspective the speed of work execution is regarded as one of key conditions of
work, that defines acquisition and, especially application of “practical” knowledge. Keeping up
with the required pace of work execution is regarded as one of indicators of competence,
professionalism and acquisition of know-how. However, high pace of work can also limit the
possibilities for the acquisition and sharing of of work-related knowledge and skills. Perspective
of experience stresses importance of reflection and reflexivity of work performance and constant
recurrence of performer to the work experience as a source for constructing of existence and
identity in the work context (Barbier, Durand, 2017). This perspective is favorable for the concept
of “slow” work, which provides enough space for reflection, thinking and gradual accumulation
of experience. Perspective of interactions looks into relationships between the individual and
collective dimensions of work, as a space for constructing and development of different relations
and interactions (Barbier, Durand, 2017). Work-based learning requires to rethink and to
reconsider discursive activity as such which acquires meaning only in the transmission of
knowledge and skills by engaging in the dialogue between apprentices and masters that facilitate
sharing of professional responsibility (Prot, 2017).
Meritocratic attitude to work, which dominates today’s labour relationships treats work primarily
as a source of wealth without a space for elaboration of norms of common social life and wellbeing (de Nanteuil, 2016). According to meritocratic attitude the gains from the work depend on
the productivity which is a function of time and pace of work performance from the one side, and
the quality, as satisfaction of the needs of users and customers from the other side. Moreover,
increasing weight of the income from the capital rejects a merit as a basis for work remuneration
and creates challenges for ethical evaluation of the essential factors of productive work (de
Nanteuil, 2016). Commodification of work, together with the current trends of technological
development and work organization lead to increasing “liquidity” of work and employment, that
requires from the employees to be able to compete on both quality and price, as well as to be ready
to respond flexibly by adjusting their human capital to changing needs and requirements of
businesses (Brown et al, 2011). In this context the dimension of time and the pace of performance
became key factors of competitiveness of individuals and enterprises. Division of work by
referring to the effectiveness of performance lead to the idea, that worker is not a personality and
social agent, but solely production unit, what permits not to apply to him/her autonomous moral
and does not necessitates to respect the dignity of his/her personality (de Nanteuil, 2016).
However, work cannot be limited to the production and productivity, because it represents a space
of self-realisation, social and personal development of actors by creating networks of relationships
that integrate working people and the objects of their work (de Nanteuil, 2016). Ignoring this idea
leads to the alienation of work, whose execution is characterized by elimination of the conscience
and feeling of personal existence during the work, as well as by disrupting of relationships
between the work execution and affective-spiritual dimension of work (Peretti,2015). Referring
to these issues, Peretti (2016) distinguishes performative work and humanistic work. Performative
work presents by itself a measure to procure resources for living and is similar to the
“labour” dimension of the human activity by H. Arendt. Performative work serves for living but
it is deprived from intrinsic value. It is functional (the results of it are for use), measurable by
using the criteria of effectiveness and productivity and exchangeable through quantification and
accountability, what permits to transfer it’s value in the monetary form (Peretti, 2016). The time
and pace of performance are the core instrumental dimensions of this type of work driven by the
requirements of effectiveness and productivity. Humanistic work is designed and valued to the
extent to which it contributes to the dignity and completeness of existence of the co-involved
persons and corresponds to the dimensions of “operare” and “agere” distinguished by H. Arendt
(Peretti, 2014). Besides of being the measure for living this kind of work also contains, reproduces
and disseminates intrinsic humanistic values. It permits to work performer to feel himself/herself
really useful for others, provides wide possibilities of self-realisation. This work creates the value
of exchange expressed in the monetary profit, utilitarian value expressed in terms of effectiveness
and efficacy, and symbolic value expressed in the “intangible” terms of pleasure, beauty,
creativity, justice, civil engagement, spirituality. The time dimension of this type of work is much
more complex and is not limited only to the requirements of productivity and effectiveness. It
involves the time for functional performance (productivity and effectiveness), but also the time
for being at work, including the time for reflection, sharing, communication, reciprocity,
expression of emotions, admiration, joy, love and other intangible values (Peretti, 2014). It also
involves important share of time for the personal, professional and social-civic growth of
personality through the experiences of work and learning.
Rising intensification of work nowadays becomes important source of suffering at work, because
it is accompanied with less autonomy granted to workers in prosecution of work tasks,
depersonalization and disengagement of person from the work and loss of the meaningfulness of
work (Dejours et al., 2018). Dejours et al. (2018) state, that increased intensification of work
execution tend to reduce the potential of work to enable development of the personal capacities
and professional skills through working, as well as reduces the space for exercising the
performer’s power of judgment and expertise.
Clôt (2015) indicates, that contradictions and conflicts between the pace of performance from the
one side and quality, work safety from the other side, as well as between the short-term
profitability from the one side, and sustainable effectiveness of work from the other side
significantly contribute to the erosion of professional identities of employees and raise their
concerns on the sustaining of jobs. Over-activity and increasing productivity contribute to the
spread of the feeling of the loss of meaning of work (Clôt, 2015). Looking from the perspective
of the work psychology, Clot (2017) claims, that paying more attention to the affective aspects of
work and their expression in the work process permits to prevent the degrading of psychical
hygiene typical for only economically oriented approaches of work organisation. Cognitivist and
ergonomic psychology rediscover importance of emotions and their role in shaping the actor.
Affect is defined by Clot (2017) as a feature of activity of an actor which enacts the body and
spirit to act. Affectivity of activity is inter-functional system which comprises affects, emotions
and feelings. Clot examines the affectivity of work by stressing the importance of the empowering
of person to act by converting the passions and ideas of actors into actions and vice-versum (Clot,
2017). He also claims, that the pace and rhythm of work, it's intensiveness tend to eliminate the
possibility of development of objects, destination and instruments of work. Intensification of work
reduces it's affective intensiveness what has negative impact to the learning. Unaffected activity
without visible object or destination often becomes a source of fear and potential pathology (Clot,
2017). When the activity does not involve experiencing of the relationships of the acting persons
with pother actors, or when such relationships are strongly reduced by the work design or
organization, the affect of work disappears and the affective power of activity becomes reduced.
On the opposite, reduction of the rhythm of work operations may lead to the increase of the rhythm
of the psychological activity as organiser of the affective acting (Clot, 2017). When the experience
revives in the movement to the new objects, instruments or objectives of work, it’s creative power
increases in developing the genre of activity, thus the affect recharges and revitalizes activity
(Clot, 2017). Clot (2017) stresses that the affect contains such creative power only when the actor
can use the work experience as a way to experience something new, to discover new things, to
shift from the known to unknown.
Rabardel and Pastré (2005) discern the opposition between the productive and constructive
activity. Productive activity totally subjugates individuals to the requirements of enterprise and
production processes, leaving them (almost) no space for personal development and selfrealisation. In this model of work the time and speed are fundamental factors of work organization.
Constructive activity, on the contrary, facilitates personal and professional growth and
development of working people by enabling them to nurture their capacities and competences in
the work processes. In this model of work time becomes a factor of sustainable development of
work design, contents and involved actors. Development of capabilities to act in the constructive
sense does not concern activity itself, but rather a capable actor and his/her possessed measures
and instruments (Clôt, 2015). Development of capabilities in the work situations requires to design
these work situations in the way to enable the exchange of experience, ideas objectives and medias
(Clôt, 2015).
Bruni (2014) pays attention to the detrimental effect of the current 'neoliberal' socio-economic
climate to the work and labour market. According to Bruni (2017) meritocratic capitalism is based
on the idea that human being is not capable ton perform and to express initiatives unless motivated
and guided by the external factors, such as benefits and sanctions. According to the theory of
contracts the main motivating factor of properly executed work is a pay in the same time ignoring
the subjective values of the well done work, such as moral or esthetical satisfaction of performer
(2017). One of the necessary features and conditions of the well performed work is gratuitousness,
because it requires ethics of virtues that is different from the utilitarian ethics based on the
incentives and sanctions (Bruni, 2017). The key idea behind such thinking is that the meaning of
the well performed work lies in the work itself and not outside it. Following this logic, the
motivational and spiritual dimensions of work cannot be programmed or purchased but only
cultivated by the employees themselves by expressing reciprocity and gift, because these qualities
of work can be only donated and it requires from enterprises to search and apply different ways of
recognition of the personality in work (Bruni, 2017). For this reason the seeking of sustainable
effectiveness of work performance requires to protect and to develop the aspects of reciprocity,
gratuitousness, recreation and gift in the contents and organization of work (Bruni, 2017). Looking
from this perspective, the concept of 'slow' work combines not only observable duration of
performance, but also the scope and meaning of work, the role of actor in defining the scope and
content of work, possibilities of critical reflection of the content of work and it's ethical,
environmental and socioeconomic implications. Value driven performance of work, as well as
reciprocity and gratuitousness in the creation and usage of work outputs are important elements of
the 'slow' work, which favors learning of actor. The potential of application of 'slow' work in the
work-based learning is limited by the existing dominant economic regimes of labour market, as
well as by the performance driven human resource management and development practices. The
main challenge in this field is how to create the niches of 'slow' work in this environment in order
to facilitate development of holistic work-based learning. Another important attribute of
sustainable work effectiveness is a capacity of liberty and autonomy of work performer in
managing the time and space of work. This capacity includes the possibility and ability to design
autonomously the time and space of work, as well as possibility to experience “liquid” (unstable,
unframed) and solid work, possibility to elaborate mechanisms of balance between the
requirements of work and family life as well as freedom in searching for the compromises between
the flexibility and tightness of the work relationships (De Nanteuil 2016; Peretti, 2014).
Brown, Ashton and Lauder (2010) explore the implications of the 'global' auction in the labour
market and dynamically changing global competition for jobs and high-skilled workforce for the
accessibility of and value of the 'high-skilled' work. The concept of the skilled work implies that
skill and learning are the inherent features of the work. In the same time this concept contains a
range of tensions between the skill formation (learning and training) and deployment of skilled
labour in the work, where the pace or speed of work execution is important factor (Green, 2013).
The time and pace of performance also serves as indicator of performative capacity, competence
and expertise. Looking to the competency proficiency scaling there can be discerned a wide range
of proficiency criteria including the pace or speed of performed actions. Speed of performance
usually indicates the following aspects of competence proficiency:
1.
Skills acquisition enabling automated performance of actions and operations by
omitting the reflection of these actions. This feature is highly typical for elementary and simple
psycho-motoric and cognitive operations and actions. This factor of human action nowadays
gradually loses its’ importance due to increasing digitalization of work processes caused by the
advent of the Industry 4.0 (Baymee, 2016; ). On the contrary, there increase requirements for the
holistic understanding and reflection of the work processes and their outcomes to the companies,
sectors and wider society.
2.
Fast problem solving and decision making ability. Fast problem solving is expressed
by ability to identify and investigate the problems of the work process and to find relevent
solutions. Fast decision making permits to make quick decisions (including strategic ones) in the
conditions of dynamically changing content and context of activity. Here the references area also
made to the pro-active decision making in the situations of professional activity. Such pro-active
decision making usually involves ability to mobilise, articulate and apply complex and forefront
knowledge by constantly updating its‘ content, as well as abilities to analyse, diagnose and forecast
the trends of the work process change, as well as ability to assess the risk of and to and assert the
responsibility for the complex strategic decisions and their implications for the enterprises, sectors
of economy, environment and wider society.
3.
Effective knowledge management indlucing ability to collect and process the
information by transforming it to the functional, technological and methodical knowledge applied
in the work process.
4.
Ability to adjust and articulate individual competences in designing and developing
collective competence according to the requirements of changing work processes.
Looking to the variety of dimensions of time at work there can be noticed that these dimensions
of time provide rather different potential for the personal and professional development of the actor
and can be identified with different indicators (Table 1).
Table 1. Dimensions of work time: potential for personal and professional development
Dimensions of time at Potential for personal and Indicators of presence in the work
work
professional development of the processes and practices
actor.
Productive
time
• Provides the possibilities to
• Presence of the attributes of
expressed through a
acquire
and
develop
linear or cyclic design and
linear or cyclic design
functional competencies
planning of the work tasks:
and planning of the
needed for the execution of
work schedules, performance
work tasks directed to
work tasks.
control instruments, work
the attainment of the
observation.
• Helps to implement the
final product or
• Work organisation is based on
acquisitive dimension of
service.
work (to have), but largely
clearly, but often narrowly
fails to implement the
defined work tasks.
expressive dimension of
• Hierarchical communication in
work (to be) by requiring
the work organization process
to execute the work in the
– domination of hierarchical
ways that reduce humans to
relationships between decision
the conditions of things or
makers and executors.
measures (Zamagni, 2019).
• Detailed descriptors of duties
• Can create a risk of deoutlining the limits of
skilling and depletion of
autonomy and responsibility
competence due to the
for acting.
closure in executing pre• Speed of performance is highly
defined tasks of work
important
indicator
in
(effect of taylorist work
evaluating
skillful
organization). It can also
performance.
lead to the shift the focus in
the understanding and
application of the concept
of competence from the
capability or unit of human
capacity to the norm that
limits
autonomy
and
responsibility for acting,
what in turn enhances the
dilution of the overall
responsibility
of
individuals and economic
entities for the outcomes of
their activities (Zamagni,
2019).
• Aside to increasing the
speed of work execution,
fast tayloristic planning of
work also helps to hide the
moral relevance of the
whole work process, that
•
Time spent for the
establishment
and
management of the
different
interpersonal and social
relationships at work:
related
to
work
organisation,
production process,
building
and
development of the
communities
of
practice, wider social
contacts
and
relationships
with
customers,
civil
society.
•
•
•
•
could hinder the motivation
of worker to execute the
tasks, as well as counteracts
the diffusion of the culture
of responsibility for work
amongst
the
working
population
(Zamagni,
2019).
Requires establishment and
maintaining
of
compromises between the
narrowly
defined
production activities and
wider dimensions of work,
including learning and
competence development.
Creates the space for
collective learning and
development of collective
competence.
Facilitates building and
development of capacities
needed for the functioning
of the communities of
practice.
Helps
to
develop
group/collective ethos of
work. Facilitates collective
understanding and respect
of
the
needs
and
requirements
of
communities, society, state
related to the work
performance an work
results (e.g., consideration
of
the
environmental
impact, societal impact,
etc.).
Facilitates development of
the
reciprocity
relationships in the work
(with
colleagues,
customers, other actors),
what
leads
to
the
development of the mutual
trust in work situations,
•
•
•
Presence of discussions and
exchange of opinions and ideas
on the issues of work
organization,
performance,
quality, work and life balance.
Presence of the “teambuilding” and improvement of
communication
and
cooperation between team
members.
Active and open social
dialogue between employers
and employees on the different
aspects of work and welfare
based on the constructive
industrial relations.
•
•
Time for reflection at
work dedicated for
the search of the
personal and social
meaning of work, as
well
as
for
development
and
improvement of work
performance.
This
time is closely related
with responsibility at
work, or responsible
acting
(Zamagni,
2019).
It is also
related to the time for
acquisition
of
wisdom by nurturing
relationships between
individual
actions
and the complex
goals or meanings of
work (Peretti, 2015).
•
•
•
•
•
abilities to design and
maintain
constructive
industrial relations.
This dimension of the
working time is also related
to
the
inter-personal
recognition of work, based
on care for other people,
when work helps to
establish functional and inpersonal relationships that
make important existential
value for working person
(Peretti, 2015).
This dimension also brings
the feeling of completeness
and
fulfillment
by
permitting to donate and to
express
gratuitousness
(Peretti, 2015).
Provides potential for
acquisition
and
development
of
tacit
knowledge, personal style
of work.
Contributes
to
the
development of the genre
of work performance.
Facilitates development of
the critical understanding
and assessment capacities.
Creates
necessary
preconditions
for
the
responsible acting by
enabling responsibility for
agency and behavior of
working person inspired by
gratuitousness (Zamagni,
2019).
Fosters acquisition of the
practical wisdom and
prudency of acting based
on the holistic, reflective
and
responsible
performance (Peretti, 2015;
Zamagni, 2016).
•
•
•
Active
involvement
and
contribution of employees in
the improvement of work
practices
and
processes
enhanced by the external
incentives
(from
the
enterprise) and internal virtues
of employees.
Developed
ability
of
employees to learn from
personal and collective work
experience, developed doubleloop learning processes and
practices.
Absence of cases or incidents
of reckless, demotivated work
performance and avoidance to
take responsibility for agency
at work.
Time
for-self
expression and selfactualisation, which
helps to deal with the
existential questions
of the life at work
(Peretti, 2015).
•
Time for learning and
competence
development at work.
•
•
•
•
Time
for
the
emotions at work,
their
expressing,
management,
protection.
•
•
Possibility to notice and
evaluate
positive
contribution of own work
to the improvement of life
and well-being of the other
people.
Possibility to identity and
nurture the legacy of own
work in terms of long-term
implications
for
the
organization, community,
society or environment.
•
Creates a space for
acquisition
and
development
of
;
knowledge, skills and
competence upon the
requirements of work and
personal
needs
of
employee.
Facilitates preparation of
human capital to the
changing skills needs and
requirements of work
processes and business.
Permits
experimenting,
elaborating hypotheses or
ideas,
challenging
of
himself/herself, as well as
creates opportunities for
personal and professional
growth, building own
future (Peretti, 2015).
Facilitates development of
emotional intelligence and
it’s expression in the work
situations.
Contributes
to
the
development of favorable
emotional climate of work.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Comprehensive and up-to date
communication of the inputs
and signals of the users of
products and services to the
executors.
Collecting,
registration,
dissemination and discussion
of
the
information
on
individual and collective
attainments and their benefits
to organization, community,
society and environment.
Integration of work-based
learning activities and work
practices.
Planned in-service training
activities.
Possibilities to reflect work
performance in the discussions
with
management
and
colleagues.
Time
dedicated
for
dissemination and sharing of
know-how acquired at the
workplace and outside the
organisation.
Provision of personalized
guidance on the issues of skills
development and career.
Acceptance to share, reflect
and explain the emotions and
their expression in the different
everyday work situations.
Attention to the issues and
questions of emotional wellbeing in the
everyday
communication
between
colleagues and managers.
Dedication of time in the
meetings and discussions for
the solution of long-term and
emerging
problems
of
emotional climate at work.
Time
for
experiencing joy and
satisfaction at work.
•
•
Time for re-creation
and renovation of
personality (Peretti,
2015).
•
•
Creates a space for learning
to feel the joy and
satisfaction with executed
work.
Facilitates development of
esthetic
feelings
in
reflecting work execution
and it’s outcomes.
Creating opportunities for
re-creation of physical and
spiritual capacities of
working persons.
Opening possibilities for
the updating, re-inventing
and revision of the meaning
of work and life (e., g,
discovering
and
rediscovering of personal,
professional or social
vocation of person).
Work speed and intensiveness in the current trends of development: Industry 4.0
The distinguishing of the 4th Industrial Revolution from the 3rd one is explained by the
unprecedented velocity of technological changes, it’s wide scope, and radically deep systems
impact. Compared with previous industrial revolutions, the Fourth is evolving at an exponential
pace and disrupting almost every industry in every country by enhancing the transformation of
entire systems of production, management, and governance. One of the essential objects of the 4th
industrial revolution is digital fabrication technologies interacting with the biological world by the
different combinations of computational design, additive manufacturing, materials engineering,
and synthetic biology that leads to the development of symbiosis between microorganisms, bodies,
products, infrastructure etc. One of the core driving ideas of the 4th Industrial revolution is to turn
the physical object or component, like production equipment into intelligent and active by enabling
it’s interactions with environment by networking. Networking of machines, objects and spaces
creates the internet of things which networks the interacting cyber-physical systems with the digital
area.
Digitalisation of production and related management and planning information systems goes
together with automatisation of the usage of data from production lines by the machines.
Assessment and delivery of the decision relevant data are important prerequisits for the design of
systems of production and logistics. There are used different measures and instruments in this
field, such as control software, Big-Data and Advanced Analytics software, intelligent data
management systems. These instruments, especially Big Data Networks permit to share and
receive the information on the work processes in the quicker ways. Networking of the all processes
of production and logistics aimed to optimize the usage of resources, reduce the costs and increase
the effectiveness of production process and it’s capacity to serve to the needs of customers.
Networked production leads to vanishing of automatisation pyramid and related work organization
– the flows of information in the digital production circulate both vertically and horizontally,
increasing and intensifying cooperation interactions between all levels of employees, as well as
intelligent cooperative self-organisation interactions between employees and technological
operation systems. Automation models also enable decentralized decision making processes. It
favors cluster organization of work based on the collective activity of high skilled employees
integrated in the networks and processes. These developments foster effectiveness of the
production processes by optimizing cooperation between humans and machines from the process
optimization executed by humans, usage of machine data of process optimization, to the
cooperation between humans and machines at the same level, as well as integrated and consistent
exchange of data between all involved actors. With the increasing flexibility of work requirements
and processes, new knowledge management systems are needed, which can dynamically record,
map and evaluate changes in the process flows (Hartmann 2015).
Despite of widespread claims, that technological development enhance demand of high skills and
tend to “enrich” the contents of work with challenging tasks, the new ways of production rarely
lead to the development of empathy, reciprocity, cooperation capacities and other relational
abilities of employees (Zamagni, 2019). According to Zamagni (2019), globalization and Industry
4.0 increasingly require answerability dimension of responsibility at work, which is expressed as
relationship of caring for vulnerable objects like nature or future of humankind. Responsible care
takers are capable to take responsibility not only for the actions that they make, but also for the
actions which are not implemented in favour to others, especially to vulnerable people or social
groups to whom the subject has relationship of obligation. This requires from the responsible care
takers capabilities to critically reflect and ethically evaluate their own actions against established
moral standards of acting (Zamagni, 2019). Such capabilities are not compatible with the
traditional ways of fast and productive execution of work which “fragmentize” human actions in
limited tasks and thus foster “de-responsibilisation” of performers and deprive them from the
capacity to judge work situations in holistic way (Zamagni, 2019). Fast execution of work requires
blind obedience to established rules, while slow execution more often adheres to grounding
principles and their critical reflection. In this way responsibility for work is strongly related to the
capacity of holistic reflection of activity. This is highly typical in case of responsibility for agency,
which means the responsibility of acting person for the contribution to the emergence of any
situation, independently from intentions and provisions (Zamagni, 2019).
The liberating effect of the Industry 4.0, when it is believed that digitalization and robotisation
will liberate human work from routine, intensiveness, humiliating exploitation of capacities and
other negative implications of traditional industrial work organization, should also be revised.
Zamagni claims, that technological unemployment can create pressure for business stakeholders
and policy makers to apply the extractive labour intensive measures that stimulate demand of
workforce by reducing labour costs and increasing production volume, thus leading to trade-offs
of accepting working poors, enhancing neo-consumerism and spread of exploitative and alienating
work practices like in case of application of cobots and other “assisting” technologies (Zamagni,
2019).
Implications for the vocational education and training
What are the implications of the pace of work and learning for the vocational training and learning
processes, such as VET curriculum design, organisation and realization of learning and training?
Vocational education and training articulates two regimes of work time and speed: 1) learning and
working speed in the school that is defined by the specific didactical requirements of learning in
the classrooms and workshops of practical training; 2) didactic and productive speed and
.intensiveness of work and learning in the real workplaces, more strongly influenced by the
requirements of work organisation and technologies.
One of the key issues in dealing with speed of work in vocational education and training is
consideration of the treatment of this speed by the methodological approaches of VET curriculum
design. Competence-based approach of curriculum design is the most influential and widespread
approach worldwide. Current approaches of competence-based education are largely driven by
the goals of economic productivity and rationalisation of the work and learning time (Grugulis,
2007).
'Slow' work is helpful for the realisation of approaches of learning outcomes based and
competence-based vocational education.
Competence-based approach to VET curricula contains rather wide range of ideas concerning the
speed of work and learning.
In case of the functional behaviorism approach to competence the priority in the training is given
to provision of the narrowly specialized and task oriented functional skills on the basis of the
momentary needs of work (Mulder, 2017). In this case the intensiveness of skilled work is directly
reflected in and dealt by the training practice, especially in case of the on-the-job training. Speed
of performance in work is regarded as one of key indicators of the acquisition of competence and
the speed of learning is important from the point of view of cost economy. Most of the instruments
and measures of competence-based vocational education and training based on functional
behaviorism are oriented and adapted to the requirements of work based on 'fast' and narrowly
'output-oriented' performance.
In case of integrated occupationalism approach to competence the priority of training is given to
acquisition of comprehensive and voluminous sets of vocational/professional knowledge, skills
and attitudes that are needed to master work processes in the long-term perspective (Mulder, 2017).
The intensiveness of learning and training in this case plays only secondary role, because the main
competence is on the quality of competent performance in the changing work processes. Wide
scope and volume of training curricula requires to invest more time for learning and training by
applying different didactic approaches and training locations. The speed of performance becomes
only one of many indicators of competent performance, but not the most important.
In case of situated professionalism approach to competence the speed of learning highly depends
on the speed and intensiveness of performance in the work process, because the focus of this
approach to competence is on the development of competence in the specialized occupational
fields, what makes occupational specificity of work performance (including typical requirements
of the speed of performance) highly important (Mulder, 2017). Speed of performance in work is
also only one of many indicators of the acquisition of competence.
One of the important trends of today’s curriculum design in VET is modularization. In light of
modularization the intensiveness of work performance, learning and training is one of the key
factors that enable to attain the attributed flexibility, effectiveness and attractiveness of this
approach to curriculum design. From one side, modularization is claimed to facilitate faster
acquisition of competence by focusing of learning to the concrete skills needs structured according
to requirements of work tasks, what helps to attain the competencies demanded by work tasks and
to access employment in a faster and more flexible way. From the other side, this approach of
curriculum design is also associated with a risk of locking-in the learners in the low skilled
employment positions, when the design of work and it’s organization do not require higher level
knowledge or skills.
Advent of the 4th Industrial Revolution also raises the questions on the optimal time and duration
of training seeking to respond to the increasing demand of the different academic knowledge, indepth know-how of work processes and key skills from the one side, and to the dynamically
changing competence needs from the other side. There is noticed increased risk of overqualification from the traditional robust and long-term initial VET training courses based on the
provision of outdated technological know-how for machine operation (Kreinsen, Ittermann, 2017).
As an alternative to such VET provision there are suggested modular and more work-based VET
curricula focused on the competences that are needed for planning, monitoring and maintenance
of digitally networked production systems. However, flexibilisation, shortening and fragmentation
of the initial VET curricula, despite of the orientation to the quick and complex changes of
competence needs (following of the trends of uberisation of services and digital taylorism),
significantly reduces the chances of trainees to be employable in the digitalized sectors of
economy, because it is going against the long-term skills needs of industry (Spöttl, 2016).
Opponents of this trend suggest the methodological and didactical strengthening of the long-term
training by focussing on the requirements of the changing work processes and especially to the
changing needs of academic knowledge. Complexity and variety of the technological and
organizational changes of the 4th industrial revolution significantly narrow the possibilities to
acquire the relevant skills and competencies outside of the real work processes, event in the
learning environments with the simulated work processes (Spöttl, 2016). The learners along the
training process will have to deal with the greater data transparency, increased complexity and
more decision-making responsibility. The vocational learning and competence development will
have to take place in such complex environments, as intersections between cyberspace and the
physical world, what will require abilities to mediate these interfaces in the learning and work
situations (Spöttl, 2016; Lee, Pfeiffer, 2017). The learners and employees will have to be ready to
navigate in the field of production and it’ virtual technological planning. It inevitably leads to the
expansion of the time volume for the initial and continuing training, but in the same time there
emerges new possibilities for the optimization of the duration of learning and smart time
management of training enhanced by the new technological solutions. Ability of the initial VET
systems to keep pace with the changing demands of industrial work also becomes of crucial
importance. It requires to revise existing institutional-structural prerequisites by seeking to
increase flexibility and adaptability of the institutional settings of VET systems, as well as to
optimize the organization of VET provision and management by more strongly linking them to the
conditions and requirements of the real work and production processes (Lee, Pfeiffer, 2017, Röben,
2017).
Empirical evidence: case studies from two countries
Speed of work performance can play different roles in the competence development depending on
the type of work organisation and level of technological development of the work processes. For
example, production automation and digitalisation processes may significantly change the role of
speed of performance in the development of competence of operator and productivity of work
processes. This is illustarted by the below described case of work-based training at the
metalworking enterprise in Lithuania.
Analysed enterprise produces different metal parts and elements with the CNC operated
equipment. This enterprise has implemented apprenticeship training which combines the
theoretical training at the special training centre (up to 1 month), practical training at the workshop
of training centre (from 1 to 3 months) and work-based training at the workplaces (from 3 to 6
months). Work-based training is smoothly integrated with the production process, when the
planning of work-based training is executed by the production planning department and quality
management is executed by the production quality control department. Enterprise has established
it‘s own 10 level competence framework linked with the other sub-systems of human resource
management, such as remuneration and career management. These circumstances permit to
explore the role and place of the speed of performance in the work processes, human resource
management and development, including work-based training and learning. Speed of performance
is one of criteria for assessment and recognition of the competence level of trainees and employees
together with the quality of work, satisfying work safety requirements and improvement of work
performance. However, it should be noted, that the speed of performance is considered as
criterium of competent performance only from the attainment of level of skillful (competent)
performance, which permits to execute work independently. At the initial steps of training, when
the apprentice is working together with trainer the priority is given to the requirements of work
safety, quality, acquisition of underpinning technological knowledge and basic practical skills.
These steps of training and work are characterised by low reflectivity of work processes based on
the separate elementary work operations (to produce parts with one processed surface, to change
and measure the tool, introduce the tool correction, visual evaluation or produced part, to read
simple drawings, to clean the surface of raw materials and parts etc.). Attainment of the required
productivity norm and speed of performance is considered as important indicator of competent and
autonomous performance. Competent and autonomous performance involves knowledge and skills
related to mastering (control) of the work process (to design and adjust simple programme of the
process, to design and produce simple tooling, to work in the automated and manual operation
regimes, to calculatre and adjust regimes of cutting, to apply the know how on the technological
process, tollerance, qualitets, surface roughness, to read drawings, to start processing program
from any point of the code of program, etc.), as well as to the human resource development (to
train and consult workers with lower level of qualification). Productivity and speed at this step
becomes very important indicator of attainment of higher level of qualification (65 points of 100),
together with absence of non-conformities (30 points of 100) and indicators of the work
improvement, such as suggestions on improvement (5 points of 100). Execution of work and
competence development at this level requires communication with trainers and higher skilled
employees, as well as simple reflection of own performance focused on the execution of operations
and single work processes. Further competency proficiency levels tend to increase:
1) the complexity of technological work tasks (to produce the parts with theree and more processed
surfaces, parts with 7 elements and qualitet and theree or more processes surfaces, complex welded
and voluminous parts with 3 and more processed surfaces; to design simple production software
with 10 elements, to calculate the chains of measurements, to measure parts with sotware technical
design programmes, to use software of drawing and production design, etc.);
2) the responsibility for management of work processes (to suggest improvements of work
processes, to make independent decisions in the technological process and manufacturing of tools
and instruments, to solve problems in the production of complex products, to participate in the
strategic decision making in the field of production technology);
3) the complexity of quality assessment and control tasks (measurement of parts, application of
the principles of dealing with non-conformities).
These advanced levels of competent performance also involve more deep, complex and wider in
scope reflectivity of the work processes, encompassing products, applied technologies, quality
control and organisation of the work processes. Here the training is focused on the acquisition of
the technological skills and tacit knowledge from the independent execution of work processes,
communication with colleagues and superiors. Highest levels of competent performance of CNC
operators are focused on the product design and development of the technological and work
processes. Here the reflectivity of the complex work processes is intertwinned with the acquisition
and exchange of expertise of the tehcological processes, work organisation and quality assurance,
as well as technological improvement and development of work processes (e.g. initiation and
implementation of the projects of Single Minute Exchange of Dies SMED and Sales and
Distribution SD). This competence framework discloses, that in the automatised technological
work processes, especially at higher competenc elevels, the speed of performance of operator loses
it‘s importance in favour to the concentration on details and process, reflectivity, quality control
and creativity.
Looking to the forms of organisation of learning and training there can be noticed different roles
and functions of working time and work intensiveness in these forms. From the perspective of
productivity requirements and pressure of labour market demand of skilled workforce the schoolbased vocational education and training presents a challenge for the human resource management
and development in the enterprises, because VET graduates in this form of training often lack
practical skills and readiness to work, what creates the „costs“ of time, financial and organisational
resources to prepare them for workplace. The speed of learning and work in the VET schools is
adjusted to the specific didactical principles and requirements by reducing it and the access of the
possibilities of work under „real time“ conditions of productive work to the VET students is
strongly limited. Very often VET schools experience the pressure from the enterprises and other
stakeholders of labour market to increase the intensiveness of training and to increase the rate of
„produced“ skilled workforce, as well as to respond better to the current skills needs of workplaces.
Yet, here are some exceptional cases. Experience of the VET pedagogy applied by the Salesian
VET centres in Italy presents one of such cases. Salesian pedagogical approach is based on the
holistic view of spiritual, cognitive and vocational development of young personality leading to
the maturity of a good Christian, citizen and worker, i.e. it concerns spiritual, civic and professional
development of personality. Research of this pedagogical approach and it‘s application in practice
of education and training shows, that implementation of competence-based approach in these VET
centres create the conditions for learners to meet the authentic challenges and requirements of
changing work processes and to respend to these challenges by reflecting authentic work
experience and acquiring from it the knowledge and skills. Research of teaching practices in the
Salesian VET centres by interviewing VET teachers and trainers and observing teaching and
learning practices heped to disclose some didactic principles related to the pace of work that help
in holistic provision of knowledge, skills and competence:
1. Organisation of learning time is closely related to the organisation of the space of learning and
work. For example, changing of the space of work and learning at workplaces in executing
different steps of work process helps to distinguish and to understand the sequence of execution
of work. The same is valid for the time and place alternation during the theoretical training in the
classroom, workshop and enterprise. Changing the place of learning at the different stages helps
to re-activate their attention and reduce the occurence of disturbing behavioural reactions.
2. Work experience must be strongly linked with the application of acquired theoretical
knowledge. Competence-based learning requires reflection of learners on the rationale and ways
of application of knowledge and skills in the execution of work tasks. Learners have to be enhanced
and supported by teachers and trainers to execute the work tasks consciously. Therefore the
execution of tasks by learners should integrate the reflection on the past situations, as well as
explication and discussion of the present situation of work. Executing of work tasks in the training
process also includes the time for reflection after the accomplishment of tasks. VET teachers oš
the salesian VET centres pay a lot of efforts to redesign the work practice of learners in the way
that it would activate thinking and reflection and to overcome purely executive vision of work with
it‘s pressure for intesification of execution which now dominates work-based vocational training
(Tacconi, 2011). Time is also important factor of learning from work experience as a rich source
for the exploration and constructing of vocational knowledge, learning to manage relationships
and to respect the rules, to act responsibly, to design and develop competencies with satisfaction
and motivation (Tacconi, 2011).
3. Learners should have enough time to pose their questions and to receive the answers from the
teachers, trainers and other learners. Even the automatically executed routine actions and
operations of the work process should be thoroughly explained and reflected. Here the guidance,
mentoring and supervision of experts and consulting within the groups of learners play very
important role. Comprehensive and deep reflection of the execution of work tasks also facilitates
development skills needed for work planning.
4. VET teachers and trainers understand learning as dynamic activity of discovering, constructing
and reconstructing of the meaning of work by the learner. It is critical for the acquisition of
craftsman mastery capacities. Learners have to learn to live in the work context, to experience the
joy from the work and satisfaction from the well executed work. It requires to develop noninstrumental concept of work.
In case of work-based learning the speed of work is one of the key elements of learning
environment. It usually becomes one of key targets of learning and training aimed to attain the
required productivity level. However, the learning and training speed in this form of training also
has to be adjusted to the capacities of learners and it involves the natural losses of time and speed
of performance due to specific activities of training, such as demonstration of execution,
supervision of learners (apprentices), provision of active support and guidance to learners, etc.
Work genre, as socially shaped pattern of work execution is the essential source of competence in
this form of training. The speed and intensiveness of performance is an important element of the
work genre. By accepting the work genre and becomming the „expert“ in handling it, the learner
acquires stable and tested approaches and ways to manage the speed and intensiveness of
performance. Development of the individual style of work performance foster more individualised
approaches to speed and intensiveness of work performance. Optimisation of work design and
organisation that helps to increase the speed and productivity of work is quite usual attribute of
individual styles of performance supported by enterprises. In the same time work-based learning
and training implies long-term investment in human capital from all involved parties, and, as such,
requires patience from the enterprises together with strong sense of social responsibility and
understanding not only economic value of such training for the enterprise, but also wider social
value (Tacconi, 2015). Such attitude of enterprises is of crucial importance to enable „patient“
organisation of training at the workplaces with enough time and attention for learners and patient
guidance and support to the competence development and shaping of competent performance
(Tacconi, 2015).
Conclusions
Exponential growth of the rythm and pace of work performance is defined by the quickly changing
economic, social and technological environment of work. The increasing intensity of work
performance together with the increasing pace of changes of the work contents and context create
significant challenges for the vocational education and training.
The response of vocational education and training to these changes does not mean, that the training
process should become more quick and intensive too. Instead, this response should lead to the
search of the models of education shifting from the standardised, uniform and deposited concepts
of learning and it’s outcomes to the transformative, meta-reflexive concept of learning which is
capable to help in adapting to change, stimulates inventiveness and creativity.
Personal performance in the conditions of fast and quickly changing work requires foremost the
personal qualities (more than capital and resources), such as knowledge and skills of work
performers, as well as their abilities to understand themselves and the world, capacity to share,
learning skills and abilities, pro-active attitudes and passion to work, curiosity and moral values.
In order to attain these qualities and capabilities, that are necessary for adaptation and survival in
the intensive and changing work environment, the vocational education and training processes
should not be more speedy and intensive, but on the contrary – more slow in order to:
-
teach to observe the things and phenomena of work in a given context and moment,
integrate in the learning process acquisition of experience as essential component of
learning, including the physical and manual experiencing of the objects of learning
- facilitate critical thinking about the value created by the own work
- obtain the benefits from the changes.
Not only the processes of vocational training and learning, but also the work itself should provide
the space for some kind of slowliness, in order to enable and ensure acquisition and development
of the above mentioned capabilities.
“Slow” work favors learning, because it stimulates observation of and listening to the world,
creates the ties of reciprocal confidence, stimulates openness to other people and meeting their
needs and expectations, enables to acquire experience.
We live in the reality and in the illusion of speed. In the reality because the digital revolution has
accelerated many work processes; in the illusion because speed often leads us to prefer things done
quickly rather than those done well. Environmental problems and disasters remind us that often
things done quickly demand high price (depletion of natural resources, pollution). Things done
well, on the contrary, provide us satisfaction and increase our well-being.
It is very likely that fast work will speed up production, but it is unlikely that it will improve
quality. Only slow work, enriched with the space for reflecting, allows to develop not only the
quality of production, but also the quality of professional and personal life.
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